Introduction

For a brief overview on black bears in Massachusetts, MassWildlife’s “Living with Wildlife” page is an excellent start. Then, for a thorough discussion and review on black bears in general, check out MassWildlife’s Black Bear web page! We believe that you will find it informative, entertaining, and useful! On this site, you can find information on the biology, natural history, and management of the black bear, as well as its history, distribution, and status. This web page is packed with detail and should be of interest to everyone.

In addition, bear hunters will find information on hunting tips, methodology, and safety, as well as a summary of past year’s harvests. There are also links to MassWildlife’s section of the Code of Massachusetts regulations as well as a Plain Language version of the regulations.

Two sets of “Frequently Asked Questions” address the biology and management of the black bear, as well as bear problems and issues. These questions go into greater technical detail than is contained in the brief “Living with Wildlife” summary. Black bears sometimes cause agricultural damage, or are perceived to be "nuisances" at campgrounds or near residences. Some people also think bears are dangerous. You will want to learn about these problems and issues and how to prevent them. Human attitudes are a key part of the conservation and management of the black bear.

Persons interested in more extensive information on the black bear may want to review the accompanying bibliography of technical and popular references on black bears or to visit the linked websites.

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Natural History, Distribution, and Status

The American black bear is a large-bodied, shaggy-haired mammal with small eyes, rounded ears, and short tail. In eastern North America, these bears are typically black overall with a brown muzzle and sometimes a white chest patch. Brown, cinnamon, and other color phases occur elsewhere. Their feet are large and well padded, with moderately-sized curved claws. The bear population has grown from about 100 in the early 1970s to about 3000 in 2005, in response to increased legal protection, changes in forest structure and composition, and increased availability of supplemental fall foods. Male black bears generally range in weight from 130 to 600 lbs. and females from 100 to 400. In Massachusetts, males averaged 230 lbs. and females 140. Lengths range from 3½ to 6 feet and shoulder height from 2½ to 3½ feet.

Black bears have good eyesight and hearing and have an extraordinary sense of smell which is used to locate food and recognize potential danger. They are excellent climbers and commonly use trees for resting and escape cover and to protect their young.

Black bears mate between mid-June and mid-July. The dominant male will breed several females. After breeding, the fertilized egg develops into a minute ball of cells (“blastocyst”) which remains free-floating in the uterus for several months. If the female is well-nourished, the blastocyst implants in the uterine wall in late November and the small feeble cubs are born in the den in mid- to late January. Litter sizes range from 1 to 4 cubs, usually 2 or 3 in Massachusetts. Cubs exit the den in early to mid-April and remain with the mother for about 17 months, at which time she comes into estrus again and chases the yearling bears away. The young females typically take up residence near their mother’s area but the young males disperse many miles. Females typically first give birth at 3 or 4 years, but this may occur later in northern boreal forests where food is scarce.

Massachusetts bears are typically active in daytime during spring and fall, but are more active during dawn and dusk hours in summer. Males may be nocturnal during the breeding season. Typical spring habitats in Massachusetts include wetlands with lush emergent vegetation and hardwood areas with leftover nuts from the previous fall. In summer, wetlands and cutover areas with emerging berry crops are preferred. Corn fields and oak, beech, or hickory stands are favored in fall. Bears have good long-term memory and are capable of recalling the location of periodic food sources years after the first visit.

In Massachusetts, adult females use home ranges averaging 9 to 10 mi² while adult males may have ranges exceeding 120 mi². Depending on food availability, Massachusetts bears enter the den between mid-November and early December and exit between early March and mid-April. Pregnant females often enter early and those with newborn cubs exit late. Bears commonly den in brush piles, under fallen trees or a jumble of rocks, or in a mountain laurel thicket.

Despite popular belief, black bears are not fierce. Their first response is usually to flee and in woodland areas the bears may disappear long before they are seen. Black bears sometimes can become habituated to human presence and conditioned to human food sources. These circumstances may then lead to damage or depredations which have unfortunate consequences if people then destroy the bear out of fear or to alleviate the damage. Black bears rarely harm people, although minor defensive attacks can occur when people tease or closely approach bears in parks or campgrounds. Female black bears defend their cubs by putting them up a tree. The sows may huff and blow and make short rushes at people who get near the cubs, but will almost never press home an attack. Deliberate predatory attacks are very rare and typically occur in remote areas.

American black bears are found in most of Canada south of the tree line and still occupy 85% of their original range there. They are found in 43 states and are abundant or common in 29 of them. Black bears have recently reoccupied much of their original range in the U.S., especially in the east, and their status is generally favorable. They are still uncommon in parts of the midwest. Black bears are endangered in Mexico. In Massachusetts, black bears have been increasing in numbers and distribution for the past 30 years. They are common in western Massachusetts, moderately common in the central region, and rare or absent in the eastern counties.

For more information, see the “Frequently Asked Questions” on black bear biology, management and status.

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Preventing Conflicts With Bears

Click here for a 2 page flyer containing information on Living With Black Bears. (pdf file)

DO NOT FEED BEARS.

• Keep the “wild” in “wildlife”. Never deliberately feed bears to attract them to your property. Bears which become accustomed to humans and dependent on human-associated foods are likely to cause property damage and become a nuisance. The bear is then placed in jeopardy if you or your neighbors become afraid of it or seek to protect their property. Some towns may have municipal bylaws which prohibit the feeding of certain wildlife.

REMOVE OR SECURE ALL POTENTIAL SOURCES OF FOOD.

• Don’t tempt bears by providing foods within easy reach. Take down bird feeders–especially those containing suet or sunflower seed–by April 1 and don’t replace them until December 1. Birds will be fine without supplemental feeding once spring arrives. Clean up spilled seed. Although some feeders can be “bear-proofed”, bears will still be attracted by scent or by spilled seed. You can attract birds for your enjoyment by planting a flower garden, providing a dusting site, and maintaining nesting boxes and a bird bath.

• Be sure that all pet foods are consumed at a single feeding and not left in the dish. Do not leave pet food or dirty dishes outside at night.

• Store all garbage in closed containers in a secure garage or inside location. Small amounts of garbage may be frozen and then placed in trash cans just before pickup. Bears may still be attracted by the smell even if they can’t get to the garbage. Double bags or sprinkling with ammonia will help reduce odors. Your town’s solid waste committee or neighborhood coalition may want to discuss waste management with your waste disposal contractor and require bear-proofing as a condition of the contract.

• Do not leave your garbage cans outside overnight. Put them by the roadside just before pickup. Dogs, coyotes, raccoons, and other animals will tip over and scatter garbage, as well as bears. Wash and rinse cans regularly. Clean greasy barbecues and picnic grills after using them. Do not leave food scraps or spilled grease in your yard.

• Do not place meat scraps, fruit remnants, or sweet materials in your compost pile. Bears will be attracted to these items.

PROTECT YOUR BEES

• Use temporary or permanent electric fences to safeguard your hives. Be sure to keep weeds from shorting out the fence. Regularly maintain the chargers or batteries. Do not place fences next to trees which the bears can climb and then jump down inside the fence.

• Keep open, mowed areas on all sides around the hives. Do not locate hives in abandoned areas or close to wooded overgrown areas where bears have pathways to the hives.

• Do not place supplemental foods nearby as a distraction. This will attract or habituate bears and will be counterproductive.

PROTECT YOUR ROW CROPS AND ORCHARDS.

• Temporary electric fencing may be used to protect corn and other crops. Be sure to maintain the fencing and chargers or batteries. Place bacon strips on the fence to enhance shocking ability when bears contact the fence. Seven-strand slanted non-electric fences have been used to keep bears out of orchards.

• Noisemakers, such as propane cannons, may be effective in some circumstances, but the bears may become used to them or simply move to another field.

• Keep open, mowed areas on all sides around the crops. When possible, cut back the vegetation on wooded overgrown gullies where bears have pathways to the hives.

• Alternate corn with other row crops to provide less food and cover.

• Contact local bear hunters to utilize the early September bear season to hunt in your fields during bear season.

• In some instances, houndsmen may be given a permit to use bear hounds to chase bears away from crops they are damaging. However, the relief may be temporary.

PROTECT YOUR LIVESTOCK.

• Avoid pasturing animals in remote areas, areas with nearby heavy wooded cover, or areas with wooded gullies or other pathways which bears may use.

• Do not leave carcasses of dead animals exposed in fields, pastures or nearby areas. Bury them deeply or incinerate them.

• When possible, pen the livestock in or near the barn at night, especially pregnant females or those with small young. Avoid field birthing if possible, or, clean areas to remove afterbirths.

• Do not place supplemental foods nearby as a distraction. This will attract or habituate bears and will be counterproductive.

• Consider the use of guard animals if you have a large or valuable livestock operation.

WHEN CAMPING IN BEAR COUNTRY, STORE ALL FOODS AND FOOD WASTES PROPERLY.

• Don’t cook, eat, or store food in your tent, camp trailer, or lean-to. Avoid cooking next to your tent or trailer where odors may linger.

• Do not dispose of food scraps, grease, or other edibles in your campfire. These materials may not be completely burned, or the scent of burned food may attract bears.

• Store food only in bear-proof containers or hung high on sturdy poles or on wires strung between 2 trees. Don’t deliberately feed bears or leave food items or picnic coolers out when away from the campsite.

• Be careful if storing food in your vehicle. Some bears may be able to break a window, tear open convertible tops, or otherwise gain entry. Even if unsuccessful, the bear’s attempts may scratch or otherwise damage your vehicle.

PROTECT YOURSELF.

• Do not approach bears in the wild. Bears will usually flee from people and move away silently. If you approach from downwind, a bear may not immediately recognize you as a human and may be curious until it scents you. Make the animal aware of you by clapping, talking, or making other sounds.

• Do not intrude between a female bear and her cubs. Black bears almost never attack in defense of cubs, but your continued presence may be stressful to the animal. Don’t assume that unaccompanied cubs are abandoned and handle or capture them. The mother is likely to be nearby and will return for them.

• Unless absolutely necessary, do not throw food items, packs, or other items to decoy bears which may approach you. This action teaches the bear how to get people to give food items to it.

• Black bears will sometimes “bluff-charge” people when they are attempting to protect or raid a food source, when cornered or threatened, or when courting or mating. Do not run or crouch down but stand your ground and then move slowly away.

• Different strategies may prevail if you are hiking, camping, or working in remote areas outside Massachusetts. Predatory attacks by black bears are very rare but have occurred in Alaska, Canada, and rarely elsewhere. Read Stephen Herrero’s book “Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance” (Rev. ed., 2002, Lyons Press) and the Northwest Territories “Safety in Bear Country” handbook to understand bear behavior and how to protect yourself in these situations.

For more detail see the “Frequently Asked Questions” on black bear problems and control.

“Co-existing with Black Bears in Massachusetts: Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Bear Damage”. This is a PDF document, and you will need the Adobe Acrobat Reader to view it. Click here to find out more about PDF files and how to get the free Adobe Acrobat Reader.

For additional information and advice on black bear management, problems, and damage control strategies in Massachusetts, contact your local MassWildlife District office.

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Hunting

Black bears were once considered to be varmints and agricultural pests, but have been regulated as a game animal in Massachusetts since 1952. Since 1970, when substantial changes were made in the hunting season and a “bear study” begun, the black bear has become prized among Massachusetts sportsmen. The bear population has grown from about 100 in the early 1970s to about 3000 in 2005, in response to increased legal protection, changes in forest structure and composition, and increased availability of supplemental fall foods. Massachusetts hunters can now enjoy a challenging big game hunt for which they once needed to travel to the remote country of northern New England.

Massachusetts bear hunters need to purchase a $5.00 bear hunting permit in addition to their basic hunting or sporting license. Non-resident hunters need a non-resident “big game” license. The bear permit application form is located on the hunting license. The season is open in Wildlife Management Zones 1-9. (Berkshire County east to Rte 495. and Rte 121) However, the majority of the harvest comes from the area west of the Connecticut River. The season is split into 2 segments, including 17 days in September and 18 days in November. The September segment is timed to coincide with agricultural damage (particularly corn) whereas the November season is a traditional time for hunters who choose to hunt hardwoods and remote ridge tops. Most bears are taken in the September segment; however, some good-sized males have been taken in November. Check the “Abstracts” of the Fisheries and Wildlife laws for the exact season dates and regulations.

There are 4 methods by which black bears are hunted: bait, hounds, incidental hunting during other seasons, and still hunting. Baiting has been unlawful in Massachusetts since 1970 and hunting with dogs since 1996. Incidental hunting during the firearms deer season is also unlawful. The Massachusetts “shotgun” deer season is rather late–beginning after Thanksgiving–and bears may already be denned. So, bear hunters must either hunt from a stand in likely feeding areas, or slowly stalk through berry patches. Most (75-80%) of the harvest is taken by stand hunters. The number of bear hunters varies annually from 2500 to 3500, although actual participation and effort varies.

Pre-season scouting is important. In Massachusetts, natural food availability is more important than either hunting method or hunter participation in determining hunter success and harvests. If natural foods–acorns, beech, cherries, and the like–are scarce, bears are more likely to utilize corn fields or orchards. The bears may travel many miles to get to these preferred food sources. However, some bears will utilize corn under any circumstances. Once they have found a good food supply, the animals will typically stay nearby. When scouting, look for tracks, scat, or bedding areas. The bears may also make well-worn trails into corn fields or large berry patches. Look for claw marks or “bear nests” in beech. Some old males may be wary and avoid human food sources. These animals may hang tight in thick cover such as laurel thickets, swamps, or other dense cover. Check for bear sign around the edges of these areas.

You may want to contact dairy farmers who plant extensive fields of sileage corn. If they are suffering bear damage, they may be interested in having bear hunters on their property. Pay attention to the farmers’ concerns and stay away from pastured livestock and do not allow your hunt to interfere with crop harvesting. You can also contact the MassWildlife District offices to find out what areas are having damage. However, many farmers already have an available pool of local hunters and do not bother to let the Districts know about depredations.

Hunting hours are from ½-hour before sunrise to ½-hour after sunset (varies on some wildlife management areas). Although some bears may be active throughout the day, you will usually want to hunt on stand in early morning or later afternoon to catch bears traveling to and from feeding areas to bedding areas. Be attentive to corridors of thick cover which the bears may follow into a corn field or other feeding site. You may want to hunt from a tree stand, but be certain of your view and don’t use “permanent” tree stands (see “Abstracts” ) without landowner permission.

Pay attention to the direction of the wind. Bears have a keen sense of smell and will quickly pick up on your presence. Place yourself downwind when hunting and, if possible, come into your stand from a direction different from that used by the bears. Do not smoke and be quiet and alert! The bears blend in with the background very well, especially in early morning and evening. You can easily fail to see the bear if it crosses from woods to corn when you are dozing or looking the other way. Bears can move very quietly when they want to and you may not hear the animal coming. If you are alert and vigilant you have a better chance of scoring. You must be particularly alert when hunting bears by stalking through food patches. Be very attentive to the possible presence of another hunter coming from a different direction.

Before the hunt, check over your equipment, especially your firearm or archery equipment. Sight in your firearm before the hunt. Lawful firearms include centerfire rifles .23 caliber or larger, certain high-powered handguns (see “Plain Language” regulations) and archery tackle similar to that used for deer. Shotguns with rifled slugs are not lawful, as state law restricts slugs and buckshot to the deer season. Most bears are taken with rifles, typically a .30-06. Some archery deer hunters secure a bear permit in case they see a bear while on deer stand but remember that firearms are prohibited while archery hunting for deer. Hunt safely! and be certain of your target and the background before shooting. There may be other hunters or farm workers around your chosen spot.

When you have taken a bear, you must bring the entire animal (it may be field-dressed) to an official checking station within 48 hours of the kill. The current check stations will be listed on your hunting permit. At the check station, the biologist will record certain information, weigh the bear, and remove a tooth for aging. You can ask to be informed of the animal’s age. You will be notified when teeth are returned from the aging laboratory early the following spring.

Since Massachusetts is the third most densely populated state in the country, many people are surprised to hear that the state’s black bear population is healthy and growing.. As currently regulated, hunting takes about 5 to 7% of the estimated population and bear numbers continue to grow at a moderate rate. Habitat changes and human attitudes are key to retaining the bear as a part of the Massachusetts fauna. Sportsmen play an important role in the conservation and management of this magnificent denizen of the forest.

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References

The references below are those which are referred to in the two sets of “Frequently Asked Questions” (Black Bear Biology and Black Bear Problems and Control). Most of these references are technical and address only a specific topic of bear biology and management. A few book-length publications are broader or more popular in scope.

See “Best Bear Books” for some excellent popular and scientific references on black bears and other North American bears. Paul Schullery’s 1988 book “The Bear Hunter’s Century” also contains (pages 237-247) a useful bibliography of books and booklets, principally on black and grizzly/brown bears.

Akenson, J.J., M.G. Henjum, T.L. Wertz, and T.J. Craddock. 2001. Use of dogs and mark-recapture techniques to estimate American black bear density in northeastern Oregon. Ursus 12:203-210.

Allen, R.B. 1984. Experimental pursuit of black bears with trained bear dogs. Proceedings of the Eastern Black Bear Workshop 7:54-58.

Alt, G.L., G.J. Matula, Jr., F.W. Alt, and J.S. Lindzey. 1977. Movements of translocated nuisance black bears of northeastern Pennsylvania. Transactions of the Northeast Fish and Wildlife Conference [34]:119-126.

Alt, G.L., G.J. Matula, Jr., F.W. Alt, and J.S. Lindzey. 1980. Dynamics of home range and movements of adult black bears in northeastern Pennsylvania. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 4:131-136.

Alt, G.L. 1980. Rate of growth and size of Pennsylvania black bears. Pennsylvania Game News 51(12):7-17.

Alt, G.L. 1983. Timing of parturition of black bears (Ursus americanus) in northeastern Pennsylvania. Journal of Mammalogy 64:305-307.

Alt, G.L. 1984a. Black bear cub mortality due to flooding of natal dens. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:1432-1434.

Alt, G.L. 1984b. Cub adoption in the black bear. Journal of Mammalogy 65:511-512.

Alt, G.L. 1984c. Reuse of black bear dens in northeastern Pennsylvania. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:236-239.

Ambrose, J.T. and O.T. Sanders. 1978. Magnitude of black bear depredation on apiaries in North Carolina. Proceedings of the Eastern Black Bear Workshop 4:167-179.

American Society of Mammalogists. 1987. Acceptable field methods in mammalogy: preliminary guidelines approved by the American Society of Mammalogists. Journal of Mammalogy 68 (supplement):1-18.

Ammons, A.E. 1974. Observations of reproductive activity of black bears in captivity in North Carolina. Proceedings of the Eastern Black Bear Workshop 2:98-100.

Amstrup, S.C. 2003. Polar bear. Pages 587-610 in G.A. Feldhamer, B.C. Thompson, and J.A. Chapman (eds) Wild mammals of North America. Biology, management, and conservation (2nd ed.) Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md., 1216pp.

Amstrup, S.C. and J. Beecham. 1976. Activity patterns of radio-collared black bears in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management 40:340-348.

Andelt, W.F. 1999. Relative effectiveness of guarding-dog breeds to deter predation on domestic sheep in Colorado. Wildlife Society Bulletin 27:706-714.

Andelt, W.F. 2001. Livestock guard dogs, llamas and donkeys. Colorado State University, Cooperative Extension Service, Publication 1.218, 7pp.

Anderson, D. 1982. The use of harvest data to make inferences about bear populations. Proceedings of the Western Black Bear Workshop 2:121-127.

Anderson, D.R. 2001. The need to get the basics right in wildlife field studies. Wildlife Society Bulletin 29:1294-1297.

Anderson, R. and K. Fleming. 1995. Island black bear cannibalism. International Bear News 4(2):14.

Ayres, L.A., L.S. Chow, and D.M. Graber. 1986. Black bear activity patterns and human induced modifications in Sequoia National Park. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 6:151-154.

Babbott, F.L. and B.W. Day, Jr. 1968. A survey of trichinosis among black bears in Vermont. Archives of Environmental Health 16:900-902.

Bacon, E.S. and G.M. Burghardt. 1976a. Ingestive behaviors of the American black bear. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 3:13-25.

Bacon, E.S. and G.M. Burghardt. 1976b. Learning and color discrimination in the American black bear. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 3:27-36.

Bacon, E.S. 1980. Curiosity in the American black bear. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 4:153-157.

Ballard, W.B. 1992. Bear predation on moose: a review of recent North American studies and their management implications. Alces Suppl. 1:162-176.

Ballard, W.B. 1994. Effects of black bear predation on caribou— a review. Alces 30:25-35.

Baptiste, M.E., J.B. Whelan, and R.B. Frary. 1979. Visitor perception of black bear problems at Shenandoah National Park. Wildlife Society Bulletin 7:25-29.

Barber, K.R. and F.G. Lindzey. 1986. Breeding behavior of black bears. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 6:129-136.

Barbour, H., T. Simmons, P. Swain, and H. Woolsey. 1998. Our irreplaceable heritage. Protecting biodiversity in Massachusetts. Mass. Division of Fisheries & Wildlife, Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program, and Mass. Chapter of the Nature Conservancy, 83pp.

Barden, M., D. Slate, R.T. Calvert, and P.W. Debow. 1995. Strategies to address human conflicts with raccoons and black bears in New Hampshire. Proceedings of the Eastern Wildlife Damage Control Conference 6:22-29.

Beck, T.D.I., D.S. Moody, D.B. Koch, J.J. Beecham, G.R. Olson, and T. Burton. 1995. Sociological and ethical considerations of black bear hunting. Proceedings of the Western Black Bear Workshop 5:119-131.

Beecham, J.J. and J. Rohlman. 1994. A shadow in the forest. Idaho’s black bear. Idaho Dept. Fish & Game, Boise, and University of Idaho Press, Moscow, 245pp.

Beeman, L.E. and M.R. Pelton. 1976. Homing of black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 3:87-95.

Bekoff, M. and D. Jamieson. 1996. Ethics and the study of carnivores: doing science while respecting animals. Pages 15-45 in J.L. Gittleman (ed.) Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution. v. 2. Comstock Publishing, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y., 644pp.

Beringer, J.J., S.G. Seibert, and M.R. Pelton. 1990. Incidence of road crossing by black bears on Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 8:85-92.

Binninger, C.E., J.J. Beecham, L.A. Thomas, and L.D. Winward. 1980. A serologic survey for selected infectious diseases of black bears in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 16:423-430.

Bittner, S. 1998. Maryland has two year old female with cubs. International Bear News 7(3):33.

Black, H.C. 1958. Black bear research in New York. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 23:443-461.

Black, L.T. 1998. Bear in human imagination and ritual. Ursus 10:343-347.

Boone, W.R., J.C. Catlin, K.J. Casey, E.T. Boone, P.S. Dye, R.J. Schuett, J.O. Rosenberg, T. Tsubota, and J.M. Bahr. 1998. Bears as induced ovulators— a preliminary study. Ursus 10:503-505.

Braaten, A. 2003. Bear shepherds in the North Cascades. International Bear News 12(2):14-15.

Brady, J.R. and D.S. Maehr. 1982. A new method for dealing with apiary-raiding black bears. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 36:571-577.

Bray, O.E. and V.G. Barnes, Jr. 1967. A literature review on black bear populations and activities. Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Fort Collins, Colo., 34pp.

Briscoe, N., J.G. Humphreys, and J.P. Dubey. 1993. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infections in Pennsylvania black bears, Ursus americanus. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 29:599-601.

Brody, A.J. and M.R. Pelton. 1989. Effects of roads on black bear movements in western North Carolina. Wildlife Society Bulletin 17:5-10.

Brody, A.J. and J.N. Stone. 1987. Timber harvest and black bear population dynamics in a southern Appalachian forest. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 7:243-250.

Buckland, S.T. 1994. The principles and practice of large-scale wildlife surveys. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 59:149-158.

Bull, P. 1970. The Teddy Bear book. Random House, New York, 207pp.

Bunnell, F.L. and D.E.N. Tait. 1980. Bears in models and in reality— implications to management. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 4:15-23.

Bunnell, F.L. and D.E.N. Tait. 1981. Population dynamics of bears—implications. Pages 75-98 in C.W. Fowler and T.D. Smith (eds.) Dynamics of large mammal populations. J. Wiley & Sons, New York, 477pp.

Burghardt, G.M. and L.S. Burghardt. 1972. Notes on behavioral development of two female black bear cubs: the first eight months. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 2:207-220.

Burst, T.L. and M.R. Pelton. 1983. Black bear mark trees in the Smoky Mountains. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 5:45-53.

Burt, W.H. 1943. Territoriality and home range concepts as applied to mammals. Journal of Mammalogy 24:346-352.

Burton, T., D. Koch, D. Updike, and A. Brody. 1994. Evaluation of the potential effects of sport hunting on California black bears. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 9(1):231-235.

Butler, C.E. and R.A. Khan. 1992. Prevalence of Trichinella spiralis in black bears (Ursus americanus) from Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 28:474-475.

Calvert, R., D. Slate, and P. Debow. 1992. An integrated approach to bear damage management in New Hampshire. Proceedings of the Eastern Black Bear Workshop 11:96-107.

Cardoza, J.E. 1976. The history and status of the black bear in Massachusetts and adjacent New England states. Mass. Division of Fisheries & Wildlife, Westborough, Mass., Research Bulletin 18, 113pp.

Cardoza, J.E., M.W. Sayre, and K.D. Elowe. 1990. Black bears in Massachusetts: the 1970s to the 1990s. Massachusetts Wildlife 40(4):10-17, 30-31.

Cardoza, J.E. 1997. Longbeards and long claws. Massachusetts Wildlife 47(4):11-17.

Carney, D.W. 1985. Population dynamics and denning ecology of black bears in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. M.S. thesis, Virginia Polytechnic University, Blacksburg, Va., 84pp.

Carr, P.C. and M.R. Pelton. 1984. Proximity of adult female black bears to limited access roads. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 38:70-77.

Carr, P.C. 2002. Black bears in New Jersey. New Jersey Fish & Wildlife Digest 16(1):62.

Caughley, G. 1974. Interpretation of age ratios. Journal of Wildlife Management 38:557-562.

Caughley, G. 1977. Analysis of vertebrate populations. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 234pp.

Chi, D.K., D. Chester, and B.K. Gilbert. 1998. Effects of capture procedures on black bear activity at an Alaskan salmon stream. Ursus 10:563-569.

Clark, J.D., D.L. Clapp, K.G. Smith, and T.B. Wigley. 1991. Black bear damage and landowner attitudes toward bears in Arkansas. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 45:208-217.

Clark, J.D. 1991. Ecology of two black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in the interior highlands of Arkansas. PhD. dissertation, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 221pp.

Clarke, C. 2002. Kermode bears: from myth to mutation. International Bear News 11(1):33-34.

Clarke, C. 2003. Clans of the Cave Bear? International Bear News 12(1):20.

Clarkson, P.L. 1989. The twelve gauge shotgun: a bear deterrent and protection system. Pages 55-60 in M. Bromley (ed.) Bear-people conflicts: proceedings of a symposium on management strategies. Northwest Territories Department of Renewable Resources, Yellowknife, N.W.T., 246pp.

Colvin, T.R. 1976. Aversive conditioning black bear to honey using lithium chloride. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Game, Fish and Conservation Commissioners 29:450-453.

Comly-Gericke, L.M. and M.R. Vaughan. 1997. Survival and reproduction of translocated Virginia black bears. Papers of the International Conference on Bear Research and Management 9(2):113-117.

Cook, W.J. and M.R. Pelton. 1978. Selected infectious and parasitic diseases of black bears in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Proceedings of the Eastern Black Bear Workshop 4:120-124.

Cooper, A.B. 1996. Finding our bearings in the trade of American black bear (Ursus americanus) parts: are we on a course for disaster? Human Dimensions of Wildlife 1(4):69-80.

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