Introduction

For a brief overview (2 pages) on wild turkeys, MassWildlife's Living With Wild Turkeys is an excellent start. You can then return to this page for more details. Below you will find information on the biology, habitat requirements, and natural history of this striking Massachusetts native, as well as information on the bird's history, restoration, and status. The information posted below is packed with details!

• Help MassWildlife count adults and young turkeys for our population estimates. Outdoor enthusiasts and other cooperators are invited to join in MassWildlife's turkey brood survey, conducted annually from June through August. The form to fill out is in the brood survey link.

• Turkey hunters will find information on safety and ethics, turkey check stations, and past year's harvests. There are also links to MassWildlife's section of the Code of Massachusetts Regulations (Title 321 CMR), as well as Plain Language versions of the regulations.

• Educators will be interested in the Wild Turkey Learning Kit, developed by MassWildlife staff as an adjunct to Project WILD and other instructional programs.

• A detailed series of Frequently Asked Questions, which comprise part of the Learning Kit, may be accessed directly or as linked to the biology, restoration, and hunting sections of this web page.

• People interested in more extensive information on the wild turkey may want to review the accompanying bibliography of technical and popular references.

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Biology

The wild turkey - essentially a streamlined version of its domestic counterpart - is a resilient, prolific and strikingly handsome bird. Black to blackish-bronze with white wing bars, blackish-brown tail feathers and a bluish-gray to red head (depending on the bird's emotional state), "toms" or male wild turkeys weigh about 16 to 24 pounds. They sport a hair-like "beard" which protrudes from the breast bone. Females, called hens, are smaller - about 9 to 12 pounds. Turkeys are promiscuous, and one tom may mate with several hens. In the Northeast, gobbling usually starts around mid-March, peaking in late April or early May. Hens mate several times during the season and start to lay eggs after the first mating. The nest is a shallow, leaf-lined depression on the ground, and the average clutch contains 12 to 15 eggs. Hatching occurs after an incubation period of 27 to 28 days, but only about 35 to 40 percent of the nests are successful - primarily due to adverse weather conditions or predation of the eggs or hen.

In Massachusetts broods usually appear about the first week of June. The young poults are active as soon as they hatch, and about 25 to 50 percent will survive until the fall. Predators such as foxes and goshawks may take a few young turkeys, and cold spring rains are also a hazard since the poorly-feathered young birds are easily chilled. Turkeys - except for poults, which feed heavily on insects - feed mainly on plant material, including acorns, nuts (especially hickory), grapes, skunk cabbage, barberry and other berries and tubers. During the winter, open springs and seeps are an important source of food.

In some suburban areas, there are a feral flocks of "pen-raised" turkeys. These are turkeys whose ancestors have been raised in captivity for generations. Although they look just like wild turkeys, they act tame and can become pests. It is illegal to release or possess these birds, but people sometimes do so in ignorance of the law. People should not feed these birds, or any wild turkeys as it will alter their shyness and interfere with their ability to find food on their own.

For more information, please refer to the Freqently Asked Questions.

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Restoration

At the time of colonial settlement the wild turkey was widespread in Massachusetts, ranging from Cape Cod to the Berkshires. As settlement progressed, however, hardwood forests were cut and the range of the turkey began to shrink. By the early 1800s turkeys were rare in the state, and the last known native bird was killed on Mt. Tom in 1851.

During the period following the Civil War, land use patterns began to change. Farms were abandoned, factory towns grew and the woodland began to regenerate. Between 1914 and 1947 there were at least four unsuccessful attempts made by MassWildlife to restore wild turkeys to Massachusetts. In 1960, reflecting on the success of turkey restoration efforts in other eastern states, MassWildlife, in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts, tried again - this time introducing 22 turkeys (mostly of game farm origin) into the Quabbin Reservation. After an initial surge, numbers dropped quickly and only a marginal population persisted. Game farm turkeys were clearly unsatisfactory for re-establishing a self-sustaining population.

On the other hand, releases of strictly wild birds proved highly successful. Between 1952 and 1974, the estimated nationwide turkey population grew from about 320,000 to 1,300,000, and the number of states permitting some form of open hunting season climbed from 15 to 39. Recognizing the need for redirecting its restoration project, MassWildlife made contact with other eastern states, and in 1972 was granted permission by New York to live-trap wild birds for transfer to Massachusetts. Between 1972 and 1973, 37 birds were captured in New York and released in southern Berkshire County. The new flock grew slowly at first, but expanded rapidly after about 1976 with the estimated fall 1978 population totaling about 1,000 birds. Supplemented by an overflow from adjacent states, turkeys ranged throughout most parts of Massachusetts west of the Connecticut River. In-state transplants of the birds, conducted from 1979 to 1996, expanded the range of the bird into the central, northeastern and southeastern parts of the state. The estimated fall population of turkeys now exceeds 15,000 birds!

For more information, please refer to the Freqently Asked Questions.

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Hunting

Wild turkeys are prized gamebirds and have responded remarkably well to recent restoration and management programs. They have shown considerable adaptability to widely different habitat conditions, and, under responsible management programs, can provide high quality hunting without detriment to the overall population. Restoration efforts in Massachusetts have been directed toward the ultimate goal of a huntable population - a goal that was achieved in the spring of 1980 when the first Bay State spring gobbler season opened. The hunt is by permit only so that hunter density can be kept to an optimum low level - thus insuring a quality hunting experience. With eleven counties now open in spring, virtually all hunters who apply are successful in getting a permit.

Spring gobbler seasons are a challenging way to hunt these wary birds. Because toms can breed with several hens - and the season is timed to coincide with the period when the protected hens are already on their nests - gobblers can be taken without adversely affecting production. A well established turkey population can easily withstand a limited either-sex hunting season without adverse effects, however, and this is the case in western and central parts of the state where the first fall turkey season opened in 1990. Combined with the spring gobbler season, this either-sex fall season offers hunters greater opportunities to bag one of North America's premier game species. Spring or fall, turkey hunting requires a high degree of skill in imitating the calls of the birds to lure them within range. It is a challenge found in few other types of hunts, and with fewer than one in fifteen hunters being successful, the turkey is truly a bird of trophy status.

Turkeys are back in the Northeast, and they are here to stay thanks to the support of members of the National Wild Turkey Federation, sportsmen and other interested conservation minded citizens. Recently, the wild turkey was designated as the state's official game bird! Under careful management, the future looks bright for turkeys; sportsmen, naturalists and other wildlife enthusiasts welcome their return.

For more information, please refer to the Freqently Asked Questions.

Tips for Turkey Hunting from MassWildlife and the National Wild Turkey Federation

Turkey Checking Stations - Check this information before you go on your hunt! Some stations change their hours, others may no longer exist! Successful turkey hunters must bring their birds to an official check station within 48 hours of the hunt.

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Brood Survey

Help MassWildlife count adult and young turkeys for our population estimates. Outdoor enthusiasts and other cooperators are invited to join in MassWildlife's turkey brood survey, conducted annually from June through August. The survey aids in estimating poult production and survival. Reports from knowledgeable cooperators are important in obtaining a large sample for this survey. People interested in helping with this survey may download the Massachusetts Wild Turkey Brood Survey and Instructions .

Results of the survey for the past two seasons are as follows:

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Preventing Conflicts With Turkeys

How Turkey Behavior Relates to "Nuisance Turkey" Problems

Wild turkeys are social birds. They live in flocks-sometimes rather large-which are organized by "pecking order". This pecking order is a social hierarchy or ranking in which each bird is dominant over or "pecks on" birds of lesser social status. Males and females each have their own pecking order, and same-sex flocks have their own internal pecking orders. All turkeys in the flock share the same area, but not the same privileges. For example, dominant males typically do all the breeding, with juvenile males rarely getting the opportunity.

Turkeys are not "territorial" and do not defend an area against other turkeys of the same sex. Territorial birds cannot discern individuals, but rather respond to certain visual cues. On the other hand, birds with a pecking order must recognize and remember specific individuals to know their place, and that of others, in the hierarchy. Thus, turkeys may "know" many others (as many as several hundred in Rio Grande turkeys) and must remember these individuals for several months.

Similarly, human-imprinted turkeys (those which have formed a indelible social and mental bond with humans upon birth) recognize and respond to people by both voice and appearance. The turkeys will also assign a sex to people, based upon the bird's perception of the human's behavior rather than their actual sex, and behave towards that person accordingly, for an indefinite period.

Young turkeys remain with their mother for a rather long period, up to 4 to 5 months, and female poults may remain even longer. This long association is undoubtedly an essential learning process. Turkeys also learn from each other, often by imitation, and, by associating with older more experienced birds, learn and remember the layout of their home ranges and the location of various food sources. So-called "game farm" or "pen-raised" turkeys lack these social experiences which are essential for normal adult behavior and successful survival in the wild.

All these behaviors have implications for perceived "nuisances". It is likely-although not conclusively demonstrated-that "wild" turkeys which have become habituated to people react to them as do human-imprinted birds. That is, these tame-acting birds appear to incorporate people, especially familiar individuals, into their pecking order and treat them accordingly. If they view someone as dominant, the turkeys will be deferent or fearful, while if the person is seen as subordinate he or she will be bullied. Humans perceived as males may be threatened or challenged by adult gobblers, especially in spring, or may be followed and called at by hens. Humans viewed as female may be displayed to or followed. The same person may be viewed as "male" by one turkey and "female" by another, confounding a response by the person who lacks an understanding of turkey behavior.

Prevention Tips

Below are links to specific situations or issues relating to turkey problems and conflicts.

WILD TURKEYS & AGRICULTURE

Wild turkeys are often believed to cause agricultural damage, by uprooting or feeding upon row crops such as corn, oats, alfalfa, or soybeans, or by eating or damaging fruits and berries, such as apples, grapes, or blueberries. In northern states, turkeys are also accused of consuming or soiling bunker sileage during winter.

In reality, much "turkey damage" is perceived, rather than real. Direct observations or video surveillance often show that other species cause all or most of the damage. Sightings of large flocks of turkeys sometimes produce the impression of damage when actually the birds are feeding on waste grain, insects, or other food items. A recent national survey of wildlife damage found that in 46% of field inspections animals other than turkeys were responsible 76-100% of the time, while in 18% of the instances the "other species" were responsible 50-75% of the time. Overall, 93% of confirmed turkey damage was assessed as "light". Nevertheless, damage may occasionally be severe in localized areas or in situations with deep snows and periodic winter food shortages.

PROTECT YOUR CROPS AND ORCHARDS:

The resurgence in turkey populations is a comparatively recent phenomenon and techniques to alleviate turkey damage are still being developed. Some of the ideas in use include:

• Polypropylene bird netting is often used to create bird-proof enclosures to protect vineyards, orchards, and similar agricultural situations. Some types of ultraviolet-stabilized netting last up to 20 years.
• Electronic bird repellers have been used successfully on some farms. Some models play recorded wild turkey distress calls, some play hawk calls, and others emit screeching sounds, or signals which interfere with the birds' ability to communicate with each other. Some models cover up to 3 acres per unit.
• Predator kites flown from 20 ft. or higher poles have been effective in repelling turkeys from field crops. Some models are effective in covering about 2 acres per kite.
• Scary windmills with flashing blades coated with ultraviolet-reflecting paint have been found to be effective in repelling turkeys, geese, and other species from vineyards, blueberry crops, and golf courses.
• Aggressive dogs on long leashes are sometimes used effectively to chase turkeys away from bunker silos.

PROTECT YOUR HOME GARDENS

• Polypropylene bird netting (available in ¾ in. and ½ in. mesh) is often used to protect fruit trees, berry bushes, shrubs, and home gardens. Some types of ultraviolet-stabilized netting last up to 20 years.
• Reflective colorful "flash tape" can be attached to stakes, tree limbs, or trellises. The tape reflects sunlight and flutters and twinkles in the wind. Some brands have holographic images which flash dramatically.
• Motion-activated scarecrows connected to water sprinklers have been used to repel dogs, raccoons, and large birds from gardens. One scarecrow covers an area up to 1000 square feet.
• Aggressive dogs tethered on a long leash which slides back and forth on a cable can be effective in chasing turkeys away from gardens and other home situations.
• Turkeys will recognize changes in their immediate surroundings. Once they are accustomed to an area, they may be frightened by changes in its appearance. When rocket-netting turkeys, biologists have found that the net's wire must be concealed in order not to alarm the birds. Rope, thick wire, or unusual objects placed in or around a garden may serve the same effect. These objects should be moved around frequently to obtain the best deterrent effect.

HOW TO DETER ROOSTING TURKEYS

Wild turkeys are active in the daytime. They roost in trees at night to avoid ground predators. They usually select the largest trees available and often roost as high as possible. Roost sites may reflect topography-to allow turkeys easy access and a clear view-or weather conditions-to provide shelter from harsh weather. In suburban areas, where turkeys have become habituated to people, it is not uncommon for turkeys to roost on railings, roofs, or sometimes on vehicles.

• Rows of "bird spikes" are often used to deter blackbirds, gulls, or pigeons from roosting on the ridgetops of building and are potentially effective in deterring turkeys from the same behavior.
• "Jumping" bird training devices are sometimes placed on roofs or roosts to deter and train birds to roost elsewhere. When the roosting bird contacts the device, it "jumps" in the direction of the contact, frightening the bird.

TURKEYS PECKING AT SHINY OBJECTS

Because wild turkeys have a "pecking order", they may respond aggressively to reflections or images of turkeys. Turkeys are probably not self-aware and do not recognize their own image, so will respond to a reflection as they would an intruding turkey. Human-habituated wild turkeys have been known to peck at windows, automobile mirrors, or reflections in shiny surfaces (such as polished car doors). Since the stimulus to drive away or subjugate the "intruder" is a strong one, and since the reflection does not disappear or cower when the turkey confronts it, the bird will often continually display towards or attack the reflection until changing light conditions cause it to vanish. The turkey will often remember the "intruder" and return to the same spot and continue the behavior even if repeatedly chased off.

• The reflectivity of the window, vehicle, or other shiny object must be changed or covered up in some fashion in order to stop the turkey from pecking at it.
• Aggressive dogs on a long leash can be effective in keeping turkeys away from a particular spot. In fenced areas, such as some parking lots, dogs may be allowed to roam free and chase away turkeys at will.

AGGRESSIVE TURKEYS

Remember that wild turkeys have a "pecking order" and that habituated birds may respond to you as they do to another turkey. The best defense against aggressive or persistent turkeys is to prevent the birds from becoming habituated in the first place by being bold to them. Everyone in the neighborhood must do the same; it will be ineffective if you do so only on your property. Each and every turkey must view all humans as dominant in the pecking order and respond to them as superiors rather than subjects. Habituated turkeys may attempt to dominate or attack people that the birds view as subordinates. "

Adult humans may drive off or deter these aggressive birds with bold action by forcefully fending them off with brooms or other non-injurious implements. However, the turkey may then recognize that individual as dominant but continue to respond to other people as subordinates.

• Turkeys which repeatedly challenge or attack children or elderly persons or otherwise threaten public safety may ultimately have to be destroyed. Keep turkeys wild to avoid these consequences.
• It is rarely an option to trap and relocate "nuisance" turkeys. The methods used to trap turkeys in remote areas are often impractical or ineffective in urban or suburban areas due to safety or disturbance. Released turkeys may also continue their inappropriate actions where they are released or may move substantial distances to other suburban sites.

TURKEYS IN TRAFFIC

Some wild turkeys, especially in spring and early summer, choose to stand, walk, or pace back-and-forth in the center of busy highways, dodging vehicles and blocking traffic. Some (but not all) of these birds are juvenile males and often do not strut or display. The reasons for this peculiar behavior are unknown.

• "Highway" turkeys are not easily dispersed, if at all. If a hazardous situation exists, and the birds do not soon disperse on their own, they may have to be forcibly removed.

BASIC TURKEY DO'S AND DON'TS

• DO NOT FEED WILD TURKEYS--Keep the wild in wildlife! Never deliberately feed wild turkeys to attract them to your property or to keep them around. Turkeys can survive very well on natural foods and do not need handouts from people. Turkeys which become accustomed to humans and human-associated foods are likely to lose their fear of people and cause problems. The birds are then placed in jeopardy when you or your neighbors become afraid of them or seek to stop any damage they may cause. For more information, click for the FAQ section.

• REMOVE OR SECURE ALL POTENTIAL SOURCES OF FOOD.--Don't tempt or attract wild turkeys by allowing them to feed on seeds which have spilled from your bird feeders. If these seeds are accessible to turkeys, they will readily feed upon them. This food source will have the same effect as if you deliberately fed them. Clean up spilled bird seed each day. Excess seed will attract other animals, which sometimes become a nuisance. Turkeys and other animals feeding on the seed may excrete in the seed pile and spread disease to others.

• DO NOT ALLOW TURKEYS TO BECOME HABITUATED TO PEOPLE--Wild turkeys which become conditioned to human foods, and habituated to people, are likely to cause damage or to attempt to dominate people. Once this behavior is established, it can be very difficult or impossible to change. Be sure to be bold around turkeys-especially when they first show up in an area-and encourage others in the neighborhood to do the same.

• DO NOT PROPAGATE "GAME-FARM" TURKEYS--Possession, propagation, importation, sale, purchase or release of "game-farm" wild turkeys is unlawful in Massachusetts (and most other states). Prevent domestic turkeys from mingling and breeding with wild birds. Free-ranging hybrids between wild turkeys and domestic birds often become nuisances.

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References

This listing contains those references which are relevant to the "Frequently Asked Questions" and other sections of the MassWildlife wild turkey web page. Both popular and technical references are included. The most comprehensive reference book on wild turkey currently available is that by Dickson (1992), which may be found in larger libraries or ordered from your local bookstore or from the National Wild Turkey Federation.

Amundson, T.E. 1985. Health management in wild turkey restoration programs. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium, v. 5:285-294.

Anderson, D.R. 2003. Index values rarely constitute reliable information. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31:288-291.

Anonymous. 1966. A relation or journal of the beginning and proceedings of the English Plantation settled at Plimoth in New England. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich., 72pp. [commonly called "Mourt's Relation". Many editions exist]

Bailey, R.W. 1956. Sex determination of wild turkeys by means of dropping configuration. Journal of Wildlife Management 22:220.

Bailey, R.W., D. Dennett, Jr., H. Gore, J. Pack, R. Simpson, and G. Wright. 1980. Basic considerations and general recommendations for trapping the wild turkey. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium, v. 4:10-23.

Bolen, E.G. and W.L. Robinson. 1995. Wildlife ecology and management (3rd ed.) Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 620pp.

Bradford, W. 1908. Bradford's history of Plymouth Plantation. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 437pp.

Brenneman, R. [undated] Aging spring turkeys. National Wild Turkey federation Wildlife Bulletin 19, 2pp.

Brenneman, R. [undated] Regional recommendations for planting for wild turkeys. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 13, 8pp.

Brenneman, R. and H. Daniel [undated] Planting legumes for wildlife. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 9, 8pp.

Brenneman, R., J.E. Kennamer, and M. Kennamer. 1995. Managing openings for wild turkeys and other wildlife-- a planting guide. National Wild Turkey Federation, Edgefield, S.C., 56pp.

Buckland, S.T. 1994. The principles and practices of large-scale wildlife surveys. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference, v. 59:149-158.

Cardoza, J., B. Eriksen, and H. Kilpatrick [undated] Procedures and guidelines for handling and transporting wild turkeys. National Wild Turkey Federation Technical Bulletin 3, 8pp.

Cardoza, J.E. 1993. The wild turkey: an update. Bird Observer 21:253-259.

Cardoza, J.E. 1995. A possible longevity record for the wild turkey. Journal of Field Ornithology 66:267-269.

Casada, J. (ed.) 1994. America's greatest game bird: Archibald Rutledge's turkey hunting tales. university of South Carolina Press, Columbia, S.C., 211pp.

Cronon, W. 1983. Changes in the land. Indians, colonists, and the ecology of New England. Hill & Wang, New York, 241pp.

Davidson, W.R. and G.L. Doster [undated] Avian pox. A disease that can affect any bird. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 25, 4pp.

Davidson, W.R. and G.L. Doster [undated] Blackhead disease does not really cause black heads. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 26, 4pp.

Davidson, W.R. and E.J. Wentworth. 1992. Population influences: diseases and parasites. Pages 101-118 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Dickson, D.R. and C.L. McAfee. 1988. Forest statistics for Massachusetts-- 1972 and 1985. U.S. Forest Service, Northeast Forest Experiment Station, Resource Bulletin NE-106, [112]pp.

Dickson, J.G. 1992. The future. Pages 408-415 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Dickson, J.G. (editor) 1992. The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Dickson, J.G. [undated] Managing streamside zones for wildlife. National Wild Turkey federation Wildlife Bulletin 18, 8pp.

Eaton, S.W. 1992. Wild turkey. In The Birds of North America, No. 22 (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, editors) Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and American Ornithologists' Union, 28pp.

Elliott, C.H. 1979. Turkey hunting with Charlie Elliott.  David McKay Co., New York, 275pp.

Eriksen, B., J. Cardoza, J. Pack, and H. Kilpatrick [undated] Procedures and guidelines for rocket-netting wild turkeys. National Wild Turkey Federation Technical Bulletin 1, 8pp.

Fears, J.W. (ed.) 1981. Wild turkey book: an anthology. Amwell Press, Clinton, N.J., 274pp.

Forbush, E.H. 1912. A history of the game birds, wild-fowl, and shore birds of Massachusetts and adjacent states. Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, Boston, 622pp.

Franklin, B. 1888. Letter to Mrs. Sarah Bache, 26 January 1784. Pages 438-446 in The complete works of Benjamin Franklin, v. 8. G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 522pp.

Geist, V., S.P. Mahoney and J.F. Organ. 2001. Why hunting has defined the North American model of wildlife conservation. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, v. 66:175-185.

Godin, A.J. 1982. Striped and hooded skunks. Pages 674-687 in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer (editors) Wild mammals of North America. Biology, economics, and management. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md., 1147pp.

Harbour, D. 1975. Hunting the American wild turkey. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 256pp.

Healy, W.M. 1992. Behavior. Pages 46-65 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Healy, W.M. 1990. Symposium summary: looking toward 2000. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium, v. 6:224-228.

Healy, W.M. 1992. Population influences: environment. Pages 129-143 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Healy, W.M. and M.J. Casalena [undated] Spring seep management for wild turkeys and other wildlife. National Wild Turkey federation Wildlife Bulletin 21, 8pp.

Healy, W.M. and E.S. Nenno. 1980. Growth parameters and sex and age criteria for juvenile eastern wild turkeys. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Federation, v. 4:168-185.

Healy, W.M. and E.S. Nenno. 1985. Effect of weather on wild turkey poult survival. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium, v. 5:91-101.

Healy, W.M. and S.M. Powell. 1999. Wild turkey harvest management: biology, strategies, and techniques. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological Technical Publication, BTP-R5001-1999, 95pp.

Hurst, G.A. 1992. Foods and feeding. Pages 66-83 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Hurst, G.A. [undated] Rights-of-way for wildlife. National Wild Turkey federation Wildlife Bulletin 21, 8pp.

Hurst, G.A., L.W. Burger, and B.D. Leopold. 1996. Predation and galliforme recruitment: an old issue revisited. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference, v. 61:62-76.

Johnson, D.H. 1994. Population analysis. Pages 419-44 in T.A. Bookhout (editor) Research and management techniques for wildlife and habitats (5th edition) The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., 740pp.

Kaufmann, J.H. 1982. Raccoon and allies. Pages 657-585 in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer (editors) Wild mammals of North America. Biology, economics, and management. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md., 1147pp.

Keck, R. and J. Langston. 1992. Recreational use. Pages 388-407 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Kelly, T. 1973. Tenth legion. Spur Enterprises, Monroe, La., 119pp.

Kennamer, J.E. [undated] Predators and wild turkeys. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 17, 4pp.

Kennamer, J.E. and M.C. Kennamer [undated] Wild turkey status and range. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 22, 2pp.

Kennamer, J.E. and M.C. Kennamer [undated] Wild turkey expansion and density. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 23, 2pp.

Kennamer, J.E., M.C. Kennamer and R. Brenneman [undated] History of the wild turkey in North America. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 15, 8pp.

Kennamer, M.C. [undated] Eastern wild turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 1, 4pp.

Kennamer, M.C. [undated] Florida wild turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 2, 4pp.

Kennamer, M.C. [undated] Gould's wild turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 5, 4pp.

Kennamer, M.C. [undated] Merriam's wild turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Belletin 4, 4pp.

Kennamer, M.C. [undated] Rio Grande wild turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 3, 4pp.

Korschgen, L.J. 1967. Feeding habits and food. Pages 137-198 in O.H. Hewitt (editor) The wild turkey and its management. The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., 589pp.

Kurzejeski, E.W. and L.D. Vangilder. 1992. Population management. Pages 165-184 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Lancia, R.A., J.D. Nichols, and K.H. Pollock. 1994. Estimating the number of animals in wildlife populations. Pages 215-253 in T.A. Bookhout (editor) Research and management techniques for wildlife and habitats (5th edition) The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C., 740pp.

Love, W.D., Jr. 1895. The fast and thanksgiving days of New England. Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston and New York, 607pp.

McGlincy, J. [undated] Managing for timber and wildlife diversity. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 16, 8pp.

Miller, B.K. and D. Sherro. 1987. Factors influencing the disappearance of the eastern wild turkey from southern New England. Transactions of the Northeast Section of The Wildlife Society, v. 44:8-15.

Miller, J.E. and B.D. Leopold. 1992. Population influences: predators. Pages 119-128 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

National Wild Turkey Federation. 1992. Guide to the American wild turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation, Edgefield, S.C., variously paged.

Pelham, P.H. and J.G. Dickson. 1992. Physical characteristics. Pages 32-45 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Porter, W.F. 1992. Habitat requirements. Pages 202-213 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp.

Roberts, S.D. and W.F. Porter. 1998. Influence of temperature and precipitation on survival of wild turkey poults. Journal of Wildlife Management 62:1499-1505.

Rusz, P.J. 1987. Implications of continued transplanting of turkeys of game farm origin: the Michigan case. Michigan Wildlife Habitat Foundation and National Wild Turkey Federation, 56pp.

Samuel, D.E. and B.B. Nelson. 1982. Foxes. Pages 475-490 in J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer (editors) Wild mammals of North America. Biology, economics, and management. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Md., 1147pp.

Schorger, A.W. 1966. The wild turkey. Its history and domestication. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 605pp.

Stangel, P.W., P.L. Leberg, and J.I. Smith. 1992. Systematics and population genetics. Pages 18-28 in J.G. Dickson (editor) The wild turkey. Biology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 463pp. 

Tapley, J.L., R.K. Abernethy, and J.E. Kennamer. 2001. Status and distribution of the wild turkey in 1999. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium, v. 8:15-22.

Tapley, J.L., W.M. Healy, R.K. Abernethy, and J.E. Kennamer. 2001. Status of wild turkey hunting in North America. Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium, v. 8:257-267.

Taylor, C. [undated] Wildlife habitat development on reclaimed lands. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 14, 4pp.

Taylor, C.I., H.B. Quigley, and M.J. Gonzalez [undated] Ocellated turkey. National Wild Turkey Federation Wildlife Bulletin 6, 8pp.

Tefft, B., J. Cardoza, D. Kimmel, and T. Walski [undated] Capture of pen-reared wild turkeys. National Wild Turkey Federation Technical Bulletin 2, 8pp.

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Date Last Updated: January 19, 2007

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