Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
February 9, 2022 USDA Confirms Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in a Commercial Turkey Flock in Dubois County, Indiana
WASHINGTON – The United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has confirmed the presence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in a commercial turkey flock in Dubois County, Indiana. This is the first confirmed case of HPAI in commercial poultry in the United States since 2020.
Avian influenza does not present an immediate public health concern. No human cases of these avian influenza viruses have been detected in the United States. As a reminder, the proper handling and cooking of poultry and eggs to an internal temperature of 165 ˚F kills bacteria and viruses.
Samples from the affected flock, which experienced increased mortality, were tested at the Indiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory at Purdue University, part of the National Animal Health Laboratory Network, and confirmed at the APHIS National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) in Ames, Iowa. Virus isolation is ongoing.
APHIS is working closely with the Indiana Board of Animal Health on a joint incident response. State officials quarantined the affected premises, and birds on the property were depopulated to prevent the spread of the disease. Birds from the flock will not enter the food system.
As part of existing avian influenza response plans, Federal and State partners are working jointly on additional surveillance and testing in the nearby area. The United States has the strongest AI surveillance program in the world, and USDA is working with its partners to actively look for the disease in commercial poultry operations, live bird markets and in migratory wild bird populations.
Anyone involved with poultry production from the small backyard to the large commercial producer should review their biosecurity activities to assure the health of their birds. APHIS has materials about biosecurity, including videos, checklists, and a toolkit available at www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/avian/defend-the-flock-program/dtf-resources/dtf-resources
USDA will report this finding to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) as well as international trading partners. USDA also continues to communicate with trading partners to encourage adherence to OIE standards and minimize trade impacts. OIE trade guidelines call on countries to base trade restrictions on sound science and, whenever possible, limit restrictions to those animals and animal products within a defined region that pose a risk of spreading disease of concern.
In addition to practicing good biosecurity, all bird owners should prevent contact between their birds and wild birds and report sick birds or unusual bird deaths to State/Federal officials, either through their state veterinarian or through USDA’s toll-free number at 1-866-536-7593. Additional information on biosecurity for backyard flocks can be found at healthybirds.aphis.usda.gov.
Additional background
Avian influenza (AI) is caused by an influenza type A virus which can infect poultry (such as chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail, domestic ducks, geese, and guinea fowl) and is carried by free flying waterfowl such as ducks, geese and shorebirds. AI viruses are classified by a combination of two groups of proteins: hemagglutinin or “H” proteins, of which there are 16 (H1–H16), and neuraminidase or “N” proteins, of which there are 9 (N1–N9). Many different combinations of “H” and “N” proteins are possible. Each combination is considered a different subtype and can be further broken down into different strains which circulate within flyways/geographic regions. AI viruses are further classified by their pathogenicity (low or high)—the ability of a particular virus strain to produce disease in domestic poultry.
January 18, 2022 USDA Confirms Additional Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza Finds in Wild Birds
WASHINGTON,-The United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has confirmed two additional findings of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in wild birds – one in Colleton County, South Carolina and one in Hyde County, North Carolina. These finds follow confirmation on January 14, 2022 of HPAI in a wild bird in Colleton County, South Carolina. All three findings are H5N1 HPAI.
These findings are not unexpected, as wild birds can be infected with HPAI and show no signs of illness. They can carry the disease to new areas when migrating. APHIS anticipates additional wild bird findings as our robust wild bird sampling program continues into the spring.
APHIS will post these and all future wild bird findings on its website on a weekly basis. Stakeholders should check the website on a routine basis, as no future stakeholder announcements are planned for wild bird findings.
Since wild birds can be infected with these viruses without appearing sick, people should minimize direct contact with wild birds by using gloves. If contact occurs, wash your hands with soap and water, and change clothing before having any contact with healthy domestic poultry and birds. Hunters should dress game birds in the field whenever possible and practice good biosecurity to prevent any potential disease spread. Biosecurity information is available here.
Given these additional findings, anyone involved with poultry – commercial or backyard flocks alike – should review their biosecurity plan and enhance their biosecurity practices to assure the health of their birds. APHIS has materials about biosecurity, including videos, checklists, and a toolkit available for producers on our website.
In addition to practicing good biosecurity, all bird owners should prevent contact between their birds and wild birds and report sick birds or unusual bird deaths to State/Federal officials, either through their state veterinarian or through USDA’s toll-free number at 1-866-536-7593. Additional information on biosecurity for backyard flocks can be found at healthybirds.aphis.usda.gov.
Additional background
Avian influenza (AI) is caused by an influenza type A virus which can infect poultry (such as chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail, domestic ducks, geese, and guinea fowl) and is carried by free flying waterfowl such as ducks, geese and shorebirds. AI viruses are classified by a combination of two groups of proteins: hemagglutinin or “H” proteins, of which there are 16 (H1–H16), and neuraminidase or “N” proteins, of which there are 9 (N1–N9). Many different combinations of “H” and “N” proteins are possible. Each combination is considered a different subtype and can be further broken down into different strains which circulate within flyways/geographic regions. AI viruses are further classified by their pathogenicity (low or high)—the ability of a particular virus strain to produce disease in domestic chickens.
January 14, 2022 USDA Confirms Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in a Wild Bird in South Carolina
WASHINGTON, – The United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has confirmed highly pathogenic Eurasian H5 avian influenza (HPAI) in a wild American wigeon in Colleton County, South Carolina.
Eurasian H5 HPAI has not been detected in a wild bird in the United States since 2016. There was a case of HPAI (H7N3) in one commercial turkey breeder flock in South Carolina in 2020 due to a North American lineage virus.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention considers the risk to the general public from HPAI H5 infections to be low. No human infections with Eurasian H5 viruses have occurred in the United States. As a reminder, the proper handling and cooking of poultry and eggs to an internal temperature of 165˚F kills bacteria and viruses, including HPAI.
Anyone involved with poultry production from the small backyard to the large commercial producer should review their biosecurity activities to assure the health of their birds. APHIS has materials about biosecurity, including videos, checklists, and a toolkit available at www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/avian/defend-the-flock-program/dtf-resources/dtf-resources.
The United States has the strongest AI surveillance program in the world, and USDA is working with its partners to actively look for the disease in commercial poultry operations, live bird markets, and in migratory wild bird populations. APHIS Wildlife Services collected the sample from the hunter-harvested American wigeon, and it was initially tested at the Clemson Veterinary Diagnostic Center (a member of the National Animal Health Laboratory Network). The presumptive positive samples were then sent to APHIS’ National Veterinary Services Laboratories (NVSL) for confirmatory testing.
Since wild birds can be infected with these viruses without appearing sick, people should minimize direct contact with wild birds by using gloves. If contact occurs, wash your hands with soap and water, and change clothing before having any contact with healthy domestic poultry and birds. Hunters should dress game birds in the field whenever possible and practice good biosecurity to prevent any potential disease spread. Biosecurity information is available at: www.aphis.usda.gov/publications/animal_health/2015/fsc_hpai_hunters.pdf.
In addition to practicing good biosecurity, all bird owners should prevent contact between their birds and wild birds and report sick birds or unusual bird deaths to State/Federal officials, either through their state veterinarian or through USDA’s toll-free number at 1-866-536-7593. Additional information on biosecurity for backyard flocks can be found at healthybirds.aphis.usda.gov.
Additional background
Avian influenza (AI) is caused by an influenza type A virus which can infect poultry (such as chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail, domestic ducks, geese, and guinea fowl) and is carried by free flying waterfowl such as ducks, geese and shorebirds. AI viruses are classified by a combination of two groups of proteins: hemagglutinin or “H” proteins, of which there are 16 (H1–H16), and neuraminidase or “N” proteins, of which there are 9 (N1–N9). Many different combinations of “H” and “N” proteins are possible. Each combination is considered a different subtype and can be further broken down into different strains which circulate within flyways/geographic regions. AI viruses are further classified by their pathogenicity (low or high)—the ability of a particular virus strain to produce disease in domestic chickens.
USDA Statement on Confirmation of African Swine Fever in the Dominican Republic
July 28, 2021
The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory has confirmed African swine fever (ASF) in samples collected from pigs in the Dominican Republic through an existing cooperative surveillance program.
USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has numerous interlocking safeguards in place to prevent ASF from entering the United States. Pork and pork products from the Dominican Republic are currently prohibited entry as a result of existing classical swine fever restrictions. Additionally, the Department of Homeland Security’s Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is increasing inspections of flights from the Dominican Republic to ensure travelers do not bring prohibited products to the United States. CBP will also be ensuring that garbage from these airplanes are properly disposed of to prevent the transmission of ASF.
USDA is committed to assisting the Dominican Republic in dealing with ASF, is offering continued testing support, and will consult with them on additional steps or actions to support response and mitigation measures. We will also offer similar help to Haiti, which borders the Dominican Republic and is at high risk for ASF detections.
The USDA continues to work diligently with partners including CBP and the U.S. swine industry to prevent ASF from entering the United States. ASF is not a threat to human health, cannot be transmitted from pigs to humans and it is not a food safety issue.
More information about USDA’s efforts may be found at https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animal-disease-information/swine-disease-information/african-swine-fever/seminar.
Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus
Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus
September 20, 2022
Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease Virus Serotype 2 (RHDV2, Rabbit Calicivirus) was identified in New Mexico and New York in March 2020. Since that time, the virus has been found in wild and domestic rabbits in multiple states primarily in the Western United States. At this time the virus has not been identified in Massachusetts and the detections of RHDV2 in New York (2021) and Connecticut (September 2022) have been limited to the rabbits in those households. USDA periodically updates this map with RHDV2 detections: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/maps/animal-health/rhd.
Clinical signs of RHDV2 include fever, lethargy, respiratory signs, neurologic signs including seizures, and sudden death. Most often, the rabbit is found dead, sometimes with blood around the nose. Recovered rabbits shed virus for a month or longer. This non-enveloped calicivirus is very resistant in the environment and can remain infective for months. Rabbits may become infected through direct contact, or through exposure to virus within feces, urine, or on contaminated materials, including cages, bedding, and human clothing and footwear.
Currently there is no RHDV2 vaccine licensed for use in the US. Medgene’s Experimental RHDV2 vaccine has been granted Emergency Use Authorization and has not yet been approved for higher levels of licensure. Emergency Use Authorization approval is normally reserved for regions that are already affected by the disease as is the case in the Western US. Fortunately, no "emergency" exists in Massachusetts, as again, the disease is not spreading among wild rabbits or between households keeping domestic rabbits. Medgene initially informed States that their vaccine would be conditionally licensed around the end of 2021, but this has been delayed. Although vaccination may reduce the clinical signs of disease, it may not prevent a rabbit from becoming infected, developing clinical signs, or shedding the virus. Since Massachusetts has no confirmed cases at this time, veterinarians will not be allowed to use the vaccine. This means strict biosecurity measures are of utmost importance in preventing disease transmission.
To protect domestic rabbits, owners and caretakers should keep them indoors and maintain a closed colony. Virus may be brought inside on greens or hay purchased from an endemic area, on human clothing or footwear, and on other animals that spend time outside, including dogs, cats, and insects. It is recommended that caretakers change out of their “street clothes” when handling their rabbits. Animals that go outdoors should not have access to rabbit areas, and all animals in the household should be treated with appropriate flea prevention. For many reasons, domestic rabbits should never be abandoned outside or released into the wild. In this case, release of an infected domestic rabbit could be a source of infection for wild populations.
New rabbits and those returning to the colony should be quarantined for a minimum of 14 days. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) including gloves and a smock, and dedicated equipment and supplies for cleaning, grooming, etc. is necessary when handling quarantined rabbits. Caretakers must wash their hands between groups of rabbits; and must change contaminated PPE and wash hands between quarantined individuals. Shared play areas should be thoroughly disinfected between groups of rabbits, and should not be used for those in quarantine.
Disinfectants that will inactivate RHDV2 are labeled to inactivate non-enveloped viruses, like parvovirus and feline calicivirus. Porous materials like wood, carpet, and upholstered furniture are much more difficult to decontaminate than non-porous materials, like metal. To clean and disinfect, remove all animals from the area and ensure adequate ventilation and PPE. Thoroughly remove and discard all bedding, fur, feces, and visible debris from the area. This step is important as some disinfectants are inactivated by organic material. Next, thoroughly wash the area with soap and water, and let it dry completely. Then, saturate all surfaces with disinfectant solution, allow for appropriate contact time, and rinse thoroughly. Preferred disinfectants include accelerated hydrogen peroxide and potassium peroxymonosulfate. Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) is effective only when no organic material is present. Bleach is corrosive and can cause respiratory issues in humans and animals if appropriate precautions are not taken. A list of products that are expected to be effective in inactivating RHDV2 has been published by the EPA: https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/list-o-disinfectants-use-against-rabbit-hemorrhagic-disease-virus-rhdv2.
RHDV2 has not been found in wild rabbits in New England. For their own health and safety, humans and domestic animals should avoid contact with all wildlife and carcasses. Finding the occasional rabbit carcass is not cause for concern, as predation is the most common cause of death in wild rabbits. Sightings of multiple dead rabbits with no signs of trauma within several days may be cause for concern and should be reported to the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife.
For more complete information of biosecurity and disinfection, please see the Division of Animal Health’s RHDV2 Biosecurity document. For information related to wildlife rehabilitation and to report suspected cases of RHDV2 in wild rabbits, please contact the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife at (508) 389-6300. Suspected cases of RHDV2 in domestic rabbits must be reported to the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture at (617) 626-1795 or US Department of Agriculture Veterinary Services at (508) 363-2290.
Additional Resources
Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) in Animals
Massachusetts is currently dealing with an unprecedented level of Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) virus in the mosquito population. Mosquitos pick up the virus from infected wild birds that ordinarily exhibit no symptoms. Infected mosquitos are capable of then transmitting the virus to people or horses. Infected humans and horses are victims only and play no role in transmission of the virus. The movement of horses (even if infected) does not spread the disease.
Mosquito control and mitigation efforts are incredibly important to decreasing the level of virus in the environment. Removal of standing water, getting rid of trash that can collect and hold water, and cleaning animal water buckets and troughs at least twice weekly will diminish mosquito breeding habitat. Judicious use of pesticides further limits the mosquito population numbers, mosquito bites and potential transmission of the virus.
Avoidance of outdoor activities during peak mosquito activity (dusk to dawn) further diminishes risk. For people, risk mitigation is the critical component.
For horses avoidance of outdoor activities is more challenging because they are horses. Their environmental exposure is higher but we also have the advantage of a readily available and highly effective vaccine. Appropriate vaccination of horses is highly protective and associated with limited risk. None of the 2019 equine EEE cases occurred in an adequately vaccinated horse.
The message is VACCINATE your horse! The vaccine works and is highly protective. Timing of the vaccine can be critical. Most of the EEE vaccines are part of a combination vaccine that includes Eastern and Western Encephalitis, Tetanus, plus or minus West Nile Virus often called EWT or EWT/WNV.
If your horse was vaccinated this year, check with your veterinarian about a booster. If your horse was not vaccinated this year then vaccinate immediately. Previously vaccinated horses may quickly respond to a booster vaccine and readily develop protective antibody. Horses of unknown vaccination status should receive two vaccines the first year.
Foals of 2019 should be vaccinated as soon as they are old enough (3-4 months of age) and need a second booster vaccine for adequate protection. Please do not forget the mare. She was likely vaccinated early in the spring prior to foaling and may need a booster vaccine to ensure protection until the first killing frost.
Additional Resources
Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) Vaccinations
September 6, 2019
Massachusetts is currently dealing with an unprecedented level of Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE) virus in the mosquito population. Mosquitos pick up the virus from infected wild birds that ordinarily exhibit no symptoms. Infected mosquitos are capable of then transmitting the virus to people or horses. Infected humans and horses are victims only and play no role in transmission of the virus. The movement of horses (even if infected) does not spread the disease.
Mosquito control and mitigation efforts are incredibly important to decreasing the level of virus in the environment. Removal of standing water, getting rid of trash that can collect and hold water, and cleaning animal water buckets and troughs at least twice weekly will diminish mosquito breeding habitat. Judicious use of pesticides further limits the mosquito population numbers, mosquito bites and potential transmission of the virus.
Avoidance of outdoor activities during peak mosquito activity (dusk to dawn) further diminishes risk. For people, risk mitigation is the critical component.
For horses avoidance of outdoor activities is more challenging because they are horses. Their environmental exposure is higher but we also have the advantage of a readily available and highly effective vaccine. Appropriate vaccination of horses is highly protective and associated with limited risk. None of the 2019 equine EEE cases occurred in an adequately vaccinated horse.
The message is VACCINATE your horse! The vaccine works and is highly protective. Timing of the vaccine can be critical. Most of the EEE vaccines are part of a combination vaccine that includes Eastern and Western Encephalitis, Tetanus, plus or minus West Nile Virus often called EWT or EWT/WNV.
If your horse was vaccinated this year, check with your veterinarian about a booster. If your horse was not vaccinated this year then vaccinate immediately. Previously vaccinated horses may quickly respond to a booster vaccine and readily develop protective antibody. Horses of unknown vaccination status should receive two vaccines the first year.
Foals of 2019 should be vaccinated as soon as they are old enough (3-4 months of age) and need a second booster vaccine for adequate protection. Please do not forget the mare. She was likely vaccinated early in the spring prior to foaling and may need a booster vaccine to ensure protection until the first killing frost.
Potomac Horse Fever
August 12, 2019
The Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources has received a report of a single confirmed case of Potomac Horse Fever (PHF) in a horse housed at an Essex county stable. The horse presented to a referral hospital with signs of colitis. This follows a case in a Norfolk county horse in July. That horse’s initial clinical presentation was “off feed” and uncomfortable, signs generally associated with mild colic. Fever and diarrhea came later.
Potomac Horse Fever (PHF) is a seasonal bacterial disease of horses. The disease is caused by the bacteria (Neorickettsia risticci). The complicated transmission cycle is associated with freshwater snails and certain aquatic insects. Clinical signs in horses include fever, colic, and diarrhea. Horses that are sick with PHF are not considered to pose a risk to other horses. Treatment of sick horses should be initiated promptly to avoid the potential for severe dehydration and colitis which may be fatal.
There is a commercial vaccine approved and available that may offer some protection. Other recommendations to prevent transmission include not letting horses drink from streams and ponds, cleaning water buckets to remove any insects, and turning off lights in stables at night to avoid attracting insects. It is also suggested to be careful not to sweep dead insects off the floor into stalls or mangers where horses may inadvertently consume them.
Although the disease is unusual in New England, Massachusetts had a single confirmed case at a Norfolk County stable with a second suspect case at the same farm in 2018. The Equine Disease Communication Center (EDCC) also reported a PHF case at a farm in CT in 2018.
Please continue to monitor your horses’ health. Temperature monitoring continues to be our best early warning system. Please report any sick animals promptly to your veterinarian so potentially life-saving treatment can begin right away.
Potomac Horse Fever is a reportable disease in Massachusetts. Contact the Division of Animal Health at 617-626-1795 upon diagnosis. Additional reportable disease information can be found on the Reportable Animal Disease Program page.
Equine Corona Virus: Horse Show Risk Assessment
March 1, 2019
Equine Coronavirus (ECoV) risk assessment during horse shows
This document provides basic information regarding Equine Coronavirus (ECoV). ECoV is a recently identified contagious disease that generates a high level of concern and much communication within the equestrian community. Horses that are competing may encounter ECoV at a show or other event. ECoV is known to be transmitted by a fecal- oral route (transmission through the manure of a horse that is shedding the virus).
Good biosecurity should be practiced at all horse gatherings/ competitions which will decrease exposure to the virus. See EDCC guidelines. http://www.equinediseasecc.org/disease-information
Summer 2018 ECoV incidents in the Northeast Region of the USA:
During the late summer of 2018, several horses were affected by ECoV at a horse show. Most of the affected horses had the typical mild-to-moderate, self-limiting gastrointestinal disease but a small number of horses was more severely affected. ECoV is diagnosed sporadically throughout the year but is more common in the cooler months.
What we known about ECoV
- ECoV has been recognized in the last several years as a new/emerging gastrointestinal disease in adult horses (1). Only about 25% of the naturally infected horses show clinical signs.
- Approximately 10% of horses with clinical signs of fever, lethargy, anorexia (lack of appetite) or diarrhea due to ECoV also show signs of colic (abdominal pain).
- Mortality is low (3-7%). Fecal-oral infection with ECoV is currently considered as the likely exclusive form of transmission between horses (4).
- We expect that horses will shed the EcoV virus for approximately 25 days; however, longer shedding times and asymptomatic chronic shedders have been anecdotally documented. Information about how long ECoV can survive in the environment is limited. Survival of virus in the environment depends on many factors, including presence of a porous surface, humidity, and number of viral particles present, so it is difficult to predict. General recommendations for showgrounds facilities to minimize the risk of ECoV (and other contagious disease) include the following:
- Show ground facility managers should clean and disinfect (C and D) the entire facility several times a year as well as between closely scheduled horse shows. Manure should be removed from the stalls and premises as soon as possible, thus decreasing the likelihood of horses being exposed to contagious disease.
- Show ground facility managers should have a biosecurity system in place prior to every event.This should include a plan for any ailment or disease that may occur at the event. Dedicated biosecurity officers (these can be specially trained show personnel) should be present at all show grounds or events. This will allow a quicker and more thorough response to a suspected contagious disease, thus minimizing potential spread and facilitating early therapy if indicated.
- Show ground facility managers should require a CVI (Certificate of Veterinary Inspection, also known as a health certificate) prior to entry to the show grounds and should screen all horses entering the show grounds.
As a responsible equestrian planning to attend a horse show you should take basic biosecurity measures including:
- Have a current CVI, Coggins test, and other required documentation when you attend the show.
- Never bring a horse to a show if you suspect or can confirm any signs of disease such as, but not limited to, fever, lethargy, nasal discharge, coughing, diarrhea or colic.
- Ensure your horse is properly vaccinated by your veterinarian.
- During the show, monitor your horses frequently for any abnormal clinical signs and report concerns to the responsible veterinarian and/or the biosecurity showground officials.
- Minimize as much as possible your horse’s exposure to possible sources of infectious diseasesuch as other horse manure, direct contact with other horses, common water troughs or buckets, and shared tack.
- Educate yourself about equine biosecurity and ECoV; https://www.cdfa.ca.gov/ahfss/Animal_Health/pdfs/Biosecurity_Toolkit_Full_Version.pdf, http://www.equinediseasecc.org/. https://ahdc.vet.cornell.edu/docs/EquineCoronavirusFactSheet_Sept10_Accessible.pdf.
Take home messages:
- ECoV is a newly recognized infectious disease that can affect individuals and groups of horses.Morbidity and mortality rates vary with the horse’s own health status and response to illness as well as circumstances surrounding the exposure and conditions at the stabling facility. Infectious disease is part of the inherent risk of horse shows. This risk cannot be reduced to zero but can be minimized by responsible and professional conduct by showground facilities, show organizers and the equestrian community
- We hope that this document helps Northeastern equestrians becoming better educated, more enthusiastic and better prepared for show season this spring!
DAR, The Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources Division of Animal Health
Ron Vin, DVM, DACVIM, Vin Equine Services, Myhre Equine Clinic
Linda Mittel, MSPH, DVM Animal Health Diagnostic Center Cornell University
Melissa R. Mazan, DVM, Diplomate ACVIM, Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University
References:
- Enteric coronavirus infection in adult horses N. Pusterla, R. Vin, C.M. Leutenegger, L.D. Mittel,
T.J. Divers. The Veterinary Journal Volume 231, January 2018, Pages 13-1
- Study on the resistance of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus Xin- WeiWanga., et al Journal of Virological Methods Volume 126, Issues 1– 2, June 2005, Pages 171- 177
- Overview of Feline Infectious Peritonitis. Julie K. Levy. The Merck Manual
- Experimental inoculation of equine coronavirus into Japanese draft horses Nemoto, M., Oue, Y., Morita, Y., Kanno, T., Kinoshita, Y., Niwa, H., Ueno, T., Katayama, Y., Bannai, H., Tsujimura, K., et al. 2014. Archives of Virology 159, 3329–3334.
- AHDC online information:
https://ahdc.vet.cornell.edu/docs/EquineCoronavirusFactSheet_Sept10_Accessible.pdf
6. Boone S, Gerba C. Significance of Fomites in the Spread of Respiratory and Enteric Viral Disease. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007, 73(6):1687-1696