- Scientific name: Lupinus perennis L.
- Species of Greatest Conservation Need (MA State Wildlife Action Plan)
- Special Concern (MA Endangered Species Act)
Description
Photo Credit: Arthur Haines, Native Plant Trust
Wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) is an early successional, short-lived perennial flower in the pea family (Fabaceae) that is also known by the name “sundial lupine.” It is a host plant for several species of native butterflies and moths, supporting biodiversity of sandplain and barrens-dependent species.
It grows up to 20-60 cm (7.8-23.6 inches) in height with erect stems that are thinly pubescent or hairy. The alternate, palmate leaves have long petioles and are herbaceous in texture with stalks measuring 20-60 mm (0.7-2.3 inches). The plant has stipules (leaf like growths where the petiole grows from the stem), which are linear and fused to the petioles for some or most of the length.
Leaflets are entire and oblanceolate (lance-shaped and wider at the tip), with a cuneate (wedge-shaped and tapering) base. Leaf lobes radiate from the base, somewhat resembling a hand, with 5-11 leaflets each 1.5-5 cm (0.5-1.9 inches) in length. Leaves are sparsely hairy, with hairs flat against the leaf surface or mostly pointing towards the leaf tip which is obtuse or bluntly pointed. The lower leaves of wild lupine tend to be larger and toothier, or on longer petioles than the upper leaves.
The flowers each have one carpel, pistil, and style. There are 4-5 petals on each flower measuring 12-16 mm (0.4-0.6 inches) in length whereas the green and leaf-like sepals are 3-8 mm (0.1-0.3 inches) in length. The numerous flowers grow along a terminal flowering raceme and vary from pink to blue or white in coloration. Flowers are bilaterally symmetrical and typical of the pea family, each with a superior ovary and the sepals, petals, and stamens fuse near or at the base of the flower, forming what is called either a floral cup, or a hypanthium. The flowers are arrayed in a spiral around the inflorescence or in vertical rows on an axis. Altogether, the plant puts on quite a showy and colorful display showcased against its clumps of cool, dark-green foliage.
The fruit is dry, hairy, and somewhat flattened; it is a typical legume which splits into two valves with only a single carpel. Measuring 30-50 mm (1.1-1.9 inches) in length and 8-10 mm (0.3-0.4 inches) in width, the pods split open when ripe to release up to 4 seeds.
Wild lupine is often confused with largeleaf lupine (Lupinus polyphyllus) which is an introduced and invasive species originally from the West Coast that was intended for gardens and roadside stabilization. Largeleaf lupine is much larger than wild lupine in both plant parts and total height, reaching a height of 50-150 cm (19.6-60 inches) compared to wild lupine’s 20-60 cm (7.8-23.6 inches) height. The two can be further distinguished easily by the number of leaflets. Wild lupine has 7-11 leaflets per leaf, while largeleaf lupine has 11-17 leaflets per leaf.
Note the dry and coiled seed pods. Photo Credit: Arthur Haines, Native Plant Trust
Life cycle and behavior
Even in ideal sunlight conditions, wild lupine may take up to two years to begin flowering, with the first year primarily spent in leaf to gather and store energy in the taproot. Wild lupine flowers from mid-May to mid-July and attract a range of pollinators. Honeybees, bumble bees, eastern carpenter bees, and butterflies have all been observed pollinating wild lupine.
Fruits appear as early as June and may remain on the plant until late July. When the fruits are ready to open, they dehisce (split open) to release the seeds before twisting inwards and drying. In the process, the seeds are thrown 1-5 m (3.3-16.4 feet) from the plant.
Wild lupine is monoecious, meaning both male and female flowers are borne on the same plant. It is capable of self-pollination; however, most successful breeding occurs through cross-pollination. Self-pollinated flowers yield less fruit and seed per inflorescence, and more seeds may be aborted after fruiting than from cross-pollinated flowers (Shi, 2005).
Seeds must be scarified or otherwise have their seed coat softened to germinate. This may occur when passing through the gut of an animal or as the seeds blow across sand. Seeds may remain viable in the soil seedbank for at least 3 years once settled (Halpern, 2005). Seed germination is known to be sensitive to the availability of water, and better germination rates occur after a period of overwintering or cooling.
Population status
Lupinus perennis is listed under the Massachusetts Endangered Species Act as Special Concern. All listed species are protected from killing, collecting, possessing, or sale and from activities that would destroy habitat and thus directly or indirectly cause mortality or disrupt critical behaviors. There are currently 54 occurrences in the state verified since 2000 found in Berkshire, Franklin, Worcester, Middlesex, Bristol, and Barnstable Counties, though the size of populations has decreased substantially.
Distribution and abundance
Wild Lupine is native to the eastern portion of the United States and southeastern Canada. It has occurred from Maine to Minnesota and south to Florida and Texas. Across its large extent, there are reportedly more than 1500 occurrences of the plant (NatureServe, 2026) though it is declining rapidly. Since the Industrial Revolution, it has suffered a nearly 90% decline in population, largely because of habitat fragmentation and development, poor land management, and fire exclusion.
It is not ranked in most of the states that it appears in. Indiana and Virginia rank it as Apparently Secure. Florida, North Carolina, Minnesota, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York rank it as Vulnerable. It is considered Critically Imperiled in Iowa, Mississippi, and Delaware, and Vermont. It is considered Imperiled in West Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Ontario; Maine ranks it as Presumed Extirpated.
Distribution in Massachusetts. 2000-2025. Based on records in the Natural Heritage Database.
Habitat
Wild lupine inhabits dry, sandy open fields and woodland clearings with open canopies, including pitch pine scrub oak barrens and sandplain grass communities. In Massachusetts, it is known in somewhat disturbed areas on sandy soil where regular—but not excessive—disturbance is important. These locations can include artificial meadows, fields, airfields, and cemeteries.
Well-drained and slightly-to-moderately acidic soils appear to be a key feature of sites that support this species. Surface soil disturbance also appears to play an important role in germination of seeds (Curtis, 1959, Zaremba & Pickering, 1994).
Associated species include little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), scrub oak (Quercus ilicifolia), stiff aster (Ionactis linariifolia), bush clovers (Lespedeza spp.), and goldenrods (Solidago spp.), among other plants common in open areas.
Wild lupine serves as a host plant for several locally-rare species of butterfly in Massachusetts, such as the frosted elfin (Callophrys irus, Special Concern), Persius duskywing (Erynnis persius, Endangered), and previously the Karner Blue (Plebejus samuelis, Presumed Extirpated), all of whom are either entirely or partially reliant on the plant and the latter being globally Critically Imperiled.
Healthy habitats are vital for supporting native wildlife and plants. Explore habitats and learn about conservation and restoration in Massachusetts.
Photo Credit: Katy Chayka, MinnesotaWildflowers.info
Threats
The primary threat to wild lupine is the destruction of habitat, closely followed by the succession of open habitat to forests. As an early successional species, wild lupine requires open sunlight and enough space to spread across well-draining sandy or loamy soils (Greenfield 1997, Smallidge et al. 1996, Smith 2002). Conversely, a closing canopy has been shown to greatly reduce or eliminate Lupinus perennis (Grundel et. al. 1998, Grigore et. al. 1996, Hack 1993).
In addition to the loss of sandy open habitat due to fire exclusion, a lack of prescribed burning increases the buildup of leaf litter in open areas. This has been shown to be a limiting factor for wild lupine to set seed, as it allows easy access for mice (Peromyscus spp.) who favor the fruits.
Anthropogenic influences can also negatively impact wild lupine. Inadvertent impacts from herbicide applications either reduce or eliminate wild lupine occurrences, which is a significant problem in transmission rights-of-way and roadsides across New England.
In open areas, especially in less natural settings such as airfields and cemeteries, incompatible mowing practices can prevent wild lupine from successfully setting seed. Additionally, invasives plant species may also overtake open habitat and out-shade or otherwise out-compete wild lupine plants.
The seeds of wild lupine require an overwintering period for normal or ideal germination rates. A changing temperature regime will likely negatively affect population sizes (Staudinger et al, 2024).
Conservation
Survey and monitoring
The best time of year for surveying and monitoring is mid-May to mid-July when the flowers are present. This also provides the opportunity to collect observations of pollinator interactions and larval specialist species. The best time for seed collection is late June or early July, just before the ripe seed pods split.
Wild lupine does not necessarily sprout every year, so in years when it does not appear, it should be surveyed again in the following year to determine if it is still on the landscape.
Management
Wild lupine responds very well to active management, which has been observed at several managed occurrences throughout Massachusetts. In many cases, the management of wild lupine can or will coincide with other rare species management, such as for frosted elfin (Callophrys irus, Special Concern) or a larger natural community management initiative, especially on state-owned barrens natural communities.
Objectives for active management should include the development of management strategies for each occurrence on protected conservation land, as well as for unprotected occurrences that are deemed either a high priority or have willing landowners. All active management must be done in close consultation with NHESP for this state-listed species.
One type of active management that must be done in consultation with NHESP is the collection of seed. In certain cases, establishment, augmentation or reintroduction could play a role in the conservation of this species across Massachusetts. Augmentation may be appropriate at sites where the site is protected, and management is likely but the existing population numbers are low. Depending on the existing size of the population, augmentation may be done with seed from the same site or supplemented with seed from other occurrences in the immediate area. Caution should be taken in sourcing the genetic provenance of the seed as populations show significant differentiation based on local habitat conditions (Petitta & Sabo, 2025).
Reintroduction may be appropriate for historical occurrences on protected sites where management is likely and there is a nearby population to collect seed from. Establishment may be appropriate in large, protected sites with appropriate habitat and active management. In cases of establishment and reintroduction, seed should be collected within the same major watershed area, not beyond.
Invasive species should be removed or thinned where they are crowding wild lupine populations.
All active management of rare plant populations (including invasive species removal) is subject to review under the Massachusetts Endangered Species Act and should be planned in close consultation with the Massachusetts Natural Heritage & Endangered Species Program.
Research needs
More research is needed to determine the effects of fire frequency on seed regeneration and seedling mortality. In an experimental study, wild lupine responded well to prescribed burning with an increased ability to set seed, increased leaf production and area of coverage. Seedlings subjected to fire, however, had a high mortality rate on sites that did not experience frequent fires. On a site with frequent fires, seedling mortality did not affect the overall population (Grigore & Tramer 1996).
References
Ducosin, Grace. “Lupine Season!” U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, https://www.fws.gov/story/lupine-season. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
Frosted Elfin, Mass.gov, 7 Mar. 2025, https://www.mass.gov/info-details/frosted-elfin.
Gleason, Henry Allan, and Arthur Cronquist. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. 2nd ed, New York Botanical Garden, 1991.
Gray, Asa, and Merritt Lyndon Fernald, editors. Gray’s Manual of Botany: A Handbook of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of the Central and Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. 8. (centennial) ed., Corrected printing, Van Nostrand, 1970.
Grigore, Michelle Trudeau; Tramer, Elliot J. 1996. The short-term effect of fire on Lupinus perennis (L.). Natural Areas Journal. 16(1): 41-48. [26757]
Halpern, Stacey L. “Sources and Consequences of Seed Size Variation in Lupinus perennis (Fabaceae): Adaptive and Non‐adaptive Hypotheses.” American Journal of Botany, vol. 92, no. 2, Feb. 2005, pp. 205–13. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.92.2.205.
Lupine, a Controversial Plant (U.S. National Park Service). https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/lupine.htm. Accessed 29 Apr. 2026.
Lupinus perennis. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/forb/lupper/all.html. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
Lupinus perennis (Sundial Lupine). iNaturalist, https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/81528-Lupinus-perennis. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
Lupinus perennis (Sundial Lupine): Go Botany. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/lupinus/perennis/. Accessed 29 Apr. 2026.
Lupinus perennis (Wild Lupine): Minnesota Wildflowers. https://www.minnesotawildflowers.info/flower/wild-lupine. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
Lupinus polyphyllus (Blue Lupine): Go Botany. https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/lupinus/polyphyllus/. Accessed 29 Apr. 2026.
Magee, Dennis W., and Harry E. Ahles. Flora of the Northeast: A Manual of the Vascular Flora of New England and Adjacent New York. 2nd ed, University of Massachusetts Press, 2007.
NatureServe Explorer 2.0: Callophrys Irus. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.116737/Callophrys_irus. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
NatureServe Explorer 2.0: Erynnis Persius. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.118199/Erynnis_persius. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
NatureServe Explorer 2.0: Lupinus perennis. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.161284/Lupinus_perennis. Accessed 29 Apr. 2026.
NatureServe Explorer 2.0: Plebejus samuelis. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.120997/Plebejus_samuelis. Accessed 30 Apr. 2026.
NORM Phenology Information. Native Plant Trust, 2014.
Persius Duskywing, Mass.gov, https://www.mass.gov/info-details/persius-duskywing. Accessed 13 May 2026.
Petitta, Isabella R., et al. “Assessing the Status of Sundial Lupine (Lupinus perennis L.) Genetic Diversity and Population Structure throughout Its Distribution.” AoB Plants, vol. 17, no. 5, Sept. 2025, p. plaf047. PubMed Central, https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plaf047.
Pfitsch, William A., and Ernest H. Williams. “Habitat Restoration for Lupine and Specialist Butterflies.” Restoration Ecology, vol. 17, no. 2, Mar. 2009, pp. 226–33. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00370.x.
POWO (2026). "Plants of the World Online. Facilitated by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet; https://powo.science.kew.org/ Retrieved 23 April 2026.
Shi, X. J., et al. “Effects of Self-Pollination and Maternal Resources on Reproduction and Offspring Performance in the Wild Lupine, Lupinus perennis (Fabaceae).” Sexual Plant Reproduction, vol. 18, no. 2, Sept. 2005, pp. 55–64. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.1007/s00497-005-0250-3.
Staudinger, Michelle, et al. A Regional Synthesis of Climate Data to Inform the 2025 State Wildlife Action Plans in the Northeast U.S. National and Regional Climate Adaptation Science Centers, 2024. DOI.org (Datacite), https://doi.org/10.21429/T352-9Q86.
“What Are the Differences between the Native Wild Lupine and Bigleaf Lupine Commonly Seen in New Hampshire Landscapes?” Extension, 28 June 2024, https://extension.unh.edu/blog/2024/06/what-are-differences-between-native-wild-lupine-bigleaf-lupine-commonly-seen-new-hampshire.
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| Date published: | April 30, 2025 |
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| Last updated: | May 15, 2026 |